1. Architectura autem constat ex ordinatio, quae graece taxis dicitur, et ex dispositione, hanc autem Graeci diathesin vocitant, et eurythmia et symmetria et decore et distributione quae graece oeconomia dicitur.

Translation

1. Now architecture consists of order, which in Greek is called taxis, and of arrangement, which the Greeks name diathesis, and of proportion and symmetry and decor and distribution which is called oeconomia.

2. Ordinatio est modica membrorum operis commoditas separatim universique proportionis ad symmetriam comparatio. Haec conponitur ex quantitate, quae graece posotes dicitur. Quantitas autem est modulorum ex ipsius operis sumptio e singulisque membrorum partibus universi operis conveniens effectus.
Dispositio autem est rerum apta conlocatio elegansque conpositionibus effectus cum qualitate. Species dispositionis, quae graece dicuntur ideae, sunt hae: ichnographia, orthografia, scaenographia. Ichnographia est circini regulaeque modice continens usus, e qua capiuntur formarum in solis arearum descriptiones. Orthographia autem est erecta frontis imago modiceque picta rationibus operis futuri figura. Item scaenographia et frontis et laterum abscendentium adumbratio ad circinique centrum omnium linearum responsus. Hae nascuntur ex cogitatione et inventione. Cogitatio est cura studii plena et industriae vigilantiaeque effectus propositi cum voluptate. Inventio autem est quaestionum obscurarum explicatio ratioque novae rei vigore mobili reperta. Hae sunt terminationes dispositionum.

Translation

2. Order is the balanced adjustment of the details of the work separately, and, as to the whole, the arrangement of the proportion with a view to a symmetrical result. This is made up of dimension wich in Greek is called posotes. Now dimension is the taking of modules from the parts of the work; and the suitable effect of the whole work arising from the several subdivisions of the parts.
Arrangement, however, is the fit assemblage of details, and, arising from this assemblage, the elegant effect of the work and his dimensions, along with a certain quality of character. The kinds of the arrangement (which in Greek are called ideae) are these: ichnography (plan); orthography (elevation); scenography (perspective). Ichnography (plan) demands the competent use of compass and rule; by these plans are laid out upon the site provided. Orthography (elevation), however, is the vertical image of the front, and an figure slightly tinted to show the lines of the future work. Scenography (perspective) also is the shading of the front and the retreating sides, and the correspondence of all lines to the vanishing point, which is the centre of a circle.These three arise from imagination and invention. Imagination rests upon the attention directed with minute and observant fervour to the charming effect proposed. Invention, however, is the solution of obscure problems; the treatment of a new undertaking disclosed by an active intelligence. Such are the outlines of arrangement.

3. Eurythmia est venusta species commodusque in conpositionibus membrorum aspectus. Haec efficitur, cum membra operis convenientia sunt altitudinis ad lititudinem, latitudinis ad longitudinem, et ad summam omnia respondent suae symmetriae.

Translation

3. Proportion implies a graceful semblance; the suitable display of details in their context. This is attained when the details of the work are of a height suitable to their breadth, of a breadth suitable to their length; in a word, when everything has a symmetrical correspondence.

4. Item symmetria est ex ipsius operis membris conveniens consensus ex partibusque separatis ad universae figurae speciem ratae partis responsus. Uti in hominis corpore e cubito, pede, palmo, digito ceterisque particulis symmetros est eurythmiae qualitas, sic est in operum perfectionibus. Et primum in aedibus sacris aut e columnarum crassitudinibus aut triglypho aut etiam embatere, ballistae foramine, quod Graeci peritretron vocitant, navibus interscalmio, quae dipechyaia dicitur, item ceterorum operum e membris invenitur symmetriarum ratiocinatio.

Translation

4. Symmetry also is the appropriate harmony arising out of the details of the work itself; the correspondence of each given detail to the form of the design as a whole. As in the human body, from cubit, foot, palm, inch and other small parts comes the symmetric quality of eurhythmy; so is it in the completed building. First, in sacred buildings, either from the thickness of colums, or a triglypf, or the module; of a balista by the perforation which the Greeks call peritreton; by the space between the rowlocks in a ship which is called dipechyaia; so also the calculation of symmetries, in the case of other works, is found from the details.

5. Decor autem est emendatus operis aspectus probatis rebus conpositi cum auctoritate. Is perficitur statione, quod graece thematismo dicitur, seu consuetudine aut natura. Statione, cum Iovi Fulguri et Caelo et Soli et Lunae aedificia sub divo hypaethraque constituentur; horum enim deorum et species et effectus in aperto mundo atque lucenti praesentes vidimus. Minervae et Marti et Herculi aedes doricae fient; his enim diis propter virtutem sine deliciis aedificia constitui decet. Veneri, Florae, Proserpinae, Fonti Lumphis corinthio genere constitutae aptas videbantur habere proprietates, quod his diis propter teneritatem graciliora et florida foliisque et volutis ornata opera facta augere videbuntur iustum decorem. Iunoni, Dianae, Libero Patri ceterisque diis qui eadem sunt similitudine, si aedes ionicae construentur, habita erit ratio mediocritatis, quod et ab severo more doricorum et ab teneritate corinthiorum temperabitur eorum institutio proprietatis.

Translation

5. Decor demands the faultless ensemble of a work composed, in accordance with precedent, of approved details. It obeys convention, which in Greek is called thematismos, or custom or nature. Convention is obeyed when buildings are put up in the open and hypethral to Jupiter of the Lightning, to Heaven, the Sun, the Moon; for of these gods, both te appearance and effect we see present in the open, the world of light. To Minerva, Mars and Hercules, Doric temples will be built; for to these gods, because of their might, buildings ought to be erected without embellishments. Temples designed in the Corinthian style will seem to have details suited to Venus, Flora, Proserpina, Fountains, Nymphs; for to these goddesses, on account of their gentleness, works constructed with slighter proportions and adorned with flowers, foliage, spirals and volutes will seem to gain a just decor. To Juno, Diana and Father Bacchus, and the other gods who are of the same likeness, if Ionic temples are erected, account will be taken of their middle quality; because the determinate character of their temples will avoid the severe manner of the Doric and the softer manner of the Corinthian.

6. Ad consuetudinem autem decor sic exprimitur, cum aedificiis interioribus magnificis item vestibula convenientia et elegantia erunt facta. Si enim interiora prospectus habuerint elegantes, aditus autem humiles et inhonestos, non erunt cum decore. Item si doricis epistyliis in coronis denticuli sculpentur aut in pulvinatis columnis et ionicis epistyliis (capitulis) exprimentur triglyphi, translatis ex alia ratione proprietatibus in aliud genus operis offendetur aspectus aliis ante ordinis consuetudinibus institutis.

Translation

6. With reference to fashion, decor is thus expressed; when to magnificent interiors vestibules also are made harmonious and elegant. For if the interior apartments present an elegant appearance, while the approaches are low and uncomely, they will not be accompanied by fitness. Again, if, in Doric entablatures, dentils are carved on the cornices, or if with voluted capitals and Ionic entablatures, triglyphs are applied, characteristics are transferred from one style to another: the work as a whole will jar upon us, since it includes details foreign to the order.

7. Naturalis autem decor sic erit, si primum omnibus templis saluberrimae regiones aquarumque fontes in his locis idonei eligentur, in quibus fana constituantur, deinde maxime Aesculapio, Saluti, et eorum deorum quorum plurimi medicinis aegri curari videntur. Cum enim ex pestilenti in salubrem locum corpora aegra translata fuerint et e fontibus salubribus aquarum usus subministrabuntur, celerius convalescent. Ita efficietur, uti ex natura loci maiores auctasque cum dignitate divinitas excipiat opiniones. Item naturae decor erit, si cubiculis et bybliothecis ab oriente lumina capiuntur, balneis et hibernaculis ab occidente hiberno, pinacothecis et quibus certis luminibus opus est partibus, a septentrione, quod ea caeli regio neque exclaratur neque obscuratur solis cursu sed est certa inmutabilis die perpetuo.

Translation

7. There will be a natural decor: first, if for all temples there shall be chosen the most healthy sites with suitable springs in those places in which shrines are to be set up; secondly and especially for Aesculapius and Salus; and generally for those gods by whose medical power sick persons are manifestely healed. For when sick persons are moved from a pestilent to a healthy place and the water supply is from wholesome fountains, they will more quickly recover. So will it happen that the divinity (from the nature of the site) will gain a greater and higher reputation and authority. Also there will be natural seemliness if light is taken from the east for bedrooms and libraries; for baths and winter apartments, from the wintry sunset; for picture galleries and the apartments which need a steady light, from the north, because that quarter of the heaven is neither illumined nor darkened by the sun's course but is fixed unchangeable throughout the day.

8. Distributio autem est copiarum locique commoda dispensatio parcaque in operibus sumptus ratione temperatio. Haec ita observabitur, si primum architectus ea non quaeret, quae non potuerunt inveniri aut parari nisi magno. Namque non omnibus locis harenae fossicae nec caementorum nec abietis nec sappinorum nec marmoris copia est, sed aliud alio loco nascitur, quorum conportationes difficiles sunt et sumptuosae. Utendum autem est, ubi non est harena fosica, fluviatica aut marina lota; inopiae quoque abietis aut sappinorum vitabuntur utendo cupresso, populo, ulmo, pinu; reliquaque his similiter erunt explicanda.

Translation

8. Distribution or economy, however, is the suitable disposal of supplies and the site, and the thrifty and the wise control of expense in the works. This will be guarded if, in the first place, the architect does not require what can only be supplied and prepared at great cost. For it is not everywhere that there is a supply of quarry sand or hewn stone, or fir or deal or marble. Different things are found in different places, the transport of them may be difficult and costly. Now where there is no quarry sand we must use washed river or sea sand; the need for fir or deal will be met by using cypress, poplar, elm, pine; other difficulties will be solved in alike fashion.

9. Alter gradus erit distributionis, cum ad usum patrum familiarum et ad pecuniae copiam aut ad eloquentiae dignitatem aedificia alte disponentur. Namque aliter urbanas domos oportere constitui videtur, aliter quibus ex possessiones rusticis influunt fructus; non idem feneratoribus, aliter beatis et delicatis, potentibus vero, quorum cogitationibus respublica gubernaretur, ad usum conlocabuntur; et omnino faciendae sunt aptae omnibus personis aedificiorum distributiones.

Translation

9. The second stage in Economy comes, when buildings are variously disposed for the use of owners or with a view to the display of wealth or lofty enough to suit the most dignified eloquence. For manifestly houses should be arranged in one way in towns; in another way for persons whose income arises from country estates; not the same for financiers; in another way for the wealthy men of taste; for the powerful, however, by whose ideas the state is governed, there must be special adjustment to their habits. And generally the distribution of buildings is to be adapted to the vocations of their owners.

COMMENT

The concerns of architecture

This is a very rich chapter about the quintessens of architecture as seen in antiquity.

The definition of architecture is given in the first sentence. It comes immediately after the training of the architect and is prominently present at the beginning of the second chapter.

It deals with aesthetics of architecture. This is the only place in the whole ten books where Vitruvius is concerned with aesthetics. In the rest of the work architecture is reduced to a play of proportions based on fixed moduli.

In the first sentence Vitruvius immediately defines six aestehetic categories in architecture: ordinatio, dispositio, eurythmia, symmetria, decor, distributio. In the rest of the text these categories are further explained.

In this text we meet for the first time one of the major difficulties of Vitruvius: he, as a native Latin speaker, had only Greek sources at his disposal. Before him nothing of the kind was written in Latin. For that reason he had to translate Greek terminology and even to create new Latin words of which the meaning stays, until now, unclear. To make his point clear he gives, after his Latin 'invention' the Greek word in a Latin transcription. It is remarkable that the first four categories of his definition of architecture (ordinatio - dispositio - eurythmia - symmetria) are derived directly from Greek sources: Vitruvius gives for the first two after his Latin interpretation the Greek equivalent; for the latter two he made no Latin equivalent and gives only the Greek version.
Ordinatio, dispositio, symmetria and eurythmia are in these categories an interdepent quattour: symmetria results from ordinatio, the activity of ordering the parts of the whole quantitatively. In turn symmetria itself is the necessary condition for eurythmia, for the commensurate parts thus obtained are subsequentely arranged qualitatively (through the activity of dispositio, concerned with compositio) so as to produce a state of harmonious wholesome. Thus eurythmia is a state of syntactic harmony and has to do with measurable (right) placement and form.
'Symmetria' which is translated as 'Symmetry' has not the meaning of our modern geometrical concept of symmetry. Vitruvius means that the measurements of the different parts of a building should be in proportion to each other. In a certain sense the symmetria is a further explanation of the Eurythmia. It is regrettable that he gives us no indication how to obtain this symmetry. Here Vitruvius is very superficial and he leaves everything to the fantasy of the reader.

These four categories can be seen as the canon of Vitruvius; a system of preordained forms which left no place to novelties. The whole of these four categories comes directly from hellenistic literature about architecture. This becomes particulary clear from his definition of decor as given in sentence 5:
Decor demands the faultless ensemble of a work composed, in accordance with precedent, of approved details.
In Vitruvius' opinion architecture was about the correct application of already approved forms and compositions. Novelties were not allowed in this philosophy.

The two last categories: decor and distributio stand alone. They have no equivalent in Hellenistic literature. In my opinion the concept of decor (for which no Greek equivalent is given) is a Vitruvian invention. This might be proved by the great effort he makes to explain this category: where in the former four he had clearly a ready made definition at his disposal in his Greek sources, he had to explain his concept of decor with a lot of examples from which no proper definition is deduced. The purpose of decor is to produce a composition where everything (form and content) is on the 'right place'. The rules to achieve this purpose are governed by three subcategories: statio, consuetudo and natura. For these categories Vitruvius did give neither a proper definition. Instead of a definition we find for each of these categories two sets of examples; Vitruvius leaves thus the understanding of the contents of these subcategories, and of the whole decor, to the reader.

The first part of 'Decor' is Statio.Vitruvius uses this word with a proper (Vitruvian) meaning. The first meaning of the Latin word 'Statio' is permanent condition, immobility. In the Vitruvian vocabulary it means fixed convention. To explain his concept of statio he refers to the Greek word thematismos which means 'convention' and has nothing to do whith the normal meaning of statio. Also this shift of meaning might prove the Vitruvian invention of decor.
Statio is about the choice of a plan type for a temple (hypethral versus roofed) and the choice of an order (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian). These choices must reflect the nature of the gods. He explains that the various kinds of divinities have their own type of temple architecture.
Consuetudo: this category is about coherence. In dwelling houses the exterior must reflect something of the interior; in the composition of the orders (Doric - Ionic - Corinthian) details cannot migrate from one order to another. This was not a noncommittal attitude of Vitruvius: during his lifetime Roman builders started effectively to mix elements of the different orders or styles in order to make new forms. His disapproval of these 'post modern' tendencies comes to the foreground in his treatment of consuetudo:

'Again, if, in Doric entablatures, dentils are carved on the cornices, or if with voluted capitals and Ionic entablatures, tryglyphs are applied, characteristics are transferred from one style to another: the work as a whole will jar upon us, since it includes details foreign to the order.'

But there is more than disapproval in these lines and it is even possible that he included a personal settlement with Augustus: Vitruvius clearly alluded to the theater of Marcellus. The construction of this theater was ordered by Augustus after the premature death of is nephew and heir Marcellus. Works were finished in the year 19 B.C. Although Vitruvius was on this moment one of the more influential architects in Rome (due to the protection of Octavia, Augustus' sister (see preface)) probably his opinion was not asked for this building. It is obvious that he was disturbed by this situation. He conceals his feelings by giving a general opinion about the mixing of details: indeed, in the theater of Marcellus we can see (Ionic) dentils on the cornice of a Doric entablature.
'License', seen as a 'post-modern' mixture of forms and details from the different orders to produce something new, something out of the fixed categories and therefore not included in the general canon, was for Vitruvius an unspeakable thing.

We find the same criticism in the preface of book VI. In this preface Vitruvius is very sharp, even to the emperor:

But, your Highness, I have not studied with the view of making money by my profession; rather have I held that a slight fortune with good repute is to be pursued more than abounding wealth accompanied by disgrace. Thus little celebrity has come my way. Yet by publishing these volumes, my name will reach, I hope, to after times. Nor is there cause for wonder why I am unknown to the general. Other architects beg and wrangle to obtain commissions; but I follow a rule laid down by my masters: not to seek employment but to be sought out; since an open countenance changes for shame when a request is made of a doubtful character. For the giver of a favour is courted, not the receiver. For what do we thinh will be suspected by a man who is asked to entrust expenditure at his own cost to the pleasure of the petitioner? Will he not judge that it is to be done for the profit and advantage of the other man?
Therefore our forefathers used to entrust commissions to architects of approved descent in the first place; in the second place they inquired if they were well brought up, considering that they should employ men with a sense of honour, rather than persons of a bold and insolent turn. For the craftsmen themselves trained only their own children and kindred, and those apprentices who were so worthy, that large sums could be entrusted without hesitation to their loyalty.
But while I observe that an art of such magnificence is professed by persons without training and experience, by those who are ignorant not only of architecture but even of construction, I cannot refrain from praising those owners of estates who, fortified by confidence in their own erudition, build for themselves, judging that if inexperienced persons are to be employed, they themselves are entitled to spend their own capital to their own liking rather than to that of anyone else.
For no one attempts to practise any other calling at home, such as shoe-making or fulling or any other easy occupation, with the one exception of architecture, because persons who profess it are falsely called architects in the absence of a genuine training.

The third part of Decor is Natura: this category is about the relation between the building and the building site. In the first place this site must be healthy to enhance the dignity of the god, in the second place should the building be thus orientated that it takes advantage from the direction of the light.
Architects must consider the natural environment of their buildings and adapt their work to natural circonstances

The last aesthetic category of architecture is distributio. This is about the relationship between owners and their buildings: a building must be apt with respect to his owner.

The working method of the architect

In this chapter Vitruvius gives us an idea of the abilities of the Roman architect.

We look at the way of planning a building in sentence 2 where Vitruvius speaks about ichnographia, orthographia, scaenograhia. These three words give us an idea about the way of working of architects, which in a certain sense is very similar to the modern modus operandi.

'Ichnographia' is once again a term derived from Greek. The Greek word 'ichnos' means vestige. Vitruvius uses the word here to define the ground plan of the building. Since Vitruvius makes also allusion to the situation of the building on the site it seems certain to me that these plans contained indications of measurements and also (what moderns call) a situation plan in which the building is situated in his environment and on the plot. The method of designing is given in the words 'circini regulaeque ... usus': by using the compass and the rule.
'Orthographia' is also derived from Greek. We see the Greek word 'orthos' which means 'upright'. Vitruvius uses the word to define the design of the elevation of the building, the facades.
'Scaenographia', a third word derived from Greek indicates the design of perspective. This is explained in the definition by the words adumbratio which is translated in our edition as shading and ad circini centrum omnium linearum responsus which is translated as the correspondence of all lines to the vanishing point, which is the centre of a circle. It is clear that Vitruvius is talking about the ancient technique to produce a perspective drawing of a building. The compass was used to draw a circle, from the circumference of this circle all the lines must converge in the centre i.e the spot where the point of the compass was placed.
During the history of Vitruvian study the translation of this fragment posed some problems. First we have the word adumbratio, one of the key words of this fragment. In Granger we read shading; in Perrault's translation we read parties enfoncées (deeper lying parts); the recent Dutch translation by Ton Peeters gives the more correct version drawing. Indeed: adumbratio is usually translated as draft, drawing ans has nothing to do with shading. Further we have the word circinus which is translated here as circle but which means usually compass. Thus, a better translation of this fragment could be:

'Scaenographia is the drawing of the front and the retreating sides with the correspondence of all the lines to the point where the point of the compass was placed (litterally: correspondence of all the lines to the centre of the compass).

We can conclude that the planning process of a building contained three stages:
- Ichnograpia: ground plan
- Orthographia: elevation
- Scaenographia: perspective.
These tasks are comparable to the activity of modern architects.

Bibliography

Les dix livres d'architecture de Vitruve, Corrigés et traduits en 1684 par C. Perrault, Paris, 1684.
Vitruvius, De Architectura libri X, ed. F. Granger, London, 1962.
Ton Peters, Vitruvius, Handboek bouwkunde, Amsterdam, 1999.
A. Boethius-J.B. Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman architecure, Harmondsworth, 1970.
Edmond Frézouls, Fondements scientifiques, armature conceptuelle et praxis dans le De Architectura, in Munus non ingratum, ed. H.Geertman&J.J.De Jong, Leiden, 1989, pp. 39-48.
R.A.Tybout, Die Perspektive bei Vitruv: Zwei Überlieferungen von scaenographia, in Munus non ingratum, ed. H. Geertman & J.J.De Jong, Leiden, 1989, pp. 55-68.
P.Gros, L'auctoritas chez Vitruve, in Munus non ingratum, ed. H. Geertman&J.J.De Jong, Leiden, 1989, pp.126-133
H.Geertman, De Architectura als archeologische bron: tekst en context van Vitruvius' theorie en praktijk, in Vitruviuscongres 1995, Heerlen, 1997, pp.17-24
Alina A. Payne, The Architectural Treatise in the Italian Renaissance, Cambridge, 1999.

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